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    See Also:

    Sites:
  • SocioSite: SocioSite is a multi-purpose guide for sociologists. Based in the Netherlands, it includes useful links to sites around the world.
  • A Sociological Tour Through Cyberspace: Essays, data analyses, and links on sociologies of knowledge, death, aging, family, time, and inequality.
  • Astrosociology.com: Astrosociology is a developing sociological subfield and multidisciplinary field that focuses on astrosocial phenomena(i.e., social and cultural patterns related to outer space).
  • Boekman Foundation: The Boekman Foundation is a centre where information about arts and cultural policy is collected and disseminated. It covers the areas of policy-forming and all aspects of implementation.
  • Center for the Study of Inequality: The Center for the Study of Inequality (CSI) fosters basic and applies research on social, economic, and cultural inequalities.
  • Commission for Applied and Clinical Sociology: Established by the Society for Applied Sociology and the Sociological Practice Association to develop, promote and support quality sociological education and practice in applied and clinical areas. Michigan State University.
  • Cultural Studies: Popular culture, youth culture British literature, and media studies.
  • Developmental Idealism Studies: Developmental Idealism Studies are motivated by the understanding that developmental idealism has been a powerful force for social change in both the West and non-West.
  • GERN - European Research Group into Norms: 40 research institutions from 11 European countries focusing on crime, criminology, sociology and prevention.
  • Guide to Questionaires and Surveys: Frédéric D'Astous explains how to create surveys and questionnaires. His articles cover attitude and ethics, the behaviour of groups and populations, data collection, lists and sampling.
  • Human Sciences Research Council: Specializes in humanities and social sciences research.The site includes research material in various formats.
  • Introduction to Social Theory: Course syllabus and lectures by Paul Gingrich of the University of Regina Department of Sociology and Social Studies. Covers work of Marx, Durkheim, Weber, Mead, and 20th century theorists.
  • LLEK Bookmarks Scientific Search Engines - Sociology: A comprehensive catalog of scientific resources and media worldwide but especially in German and English: Directories of Sociology Journals; Sociology-related catalogs of scientific search engines; additional starting points and sites of special interest.
  • Networks of Civil Society Organizations in Latin America: Research project about civil society networks in Latin America (Univ. of Miami, Univ. of Maryland, Ford Foundation)
  • Po Bronson's Blog: Author Po Bronson, author of "Why Do I Love These People?" blogs about family issues and statistics about families.
  • Progressive Sociology Network: PSN is a moderated list devoted to the examination of issues of theoretical and political importance to sociologists.
  • Public Research Institute, San Francisco State University: PRI is an non-profit organization serving the SF Bay Area in social research.
  • Regard: Searchable database of UK research funded by the Economic and Social Research Council. In-depth information on projects, publications, and other research activities.
  • Resources for Methods in Evaluation and Social Research: List of links to free resources for methods in social research and evaluation.
  • SIDOS: Swiss information and data archive service for the social sciences: Provides information about research in social sciences - archives research data - facilitates secondary data analysis
  • Social Capital: Capitale sociale.it contains useful resources for researchers interested in social capital and in its relationship with economic development. The website is edited by Fabio Sabatini, of the University of Rome La Sapienza
  • Social Network Analysis: This page is the starting point for Sociology 157, an undergraduate introductory course on social network analysis. It contains the text book online, and bibliographical resources for sociologists.
  • Social Policy Virtual Library: Offers links to pages that feature surveys, statistics and charts. Includes national categories.
  • Social, Political and Economic Change: Links to resources
  • Sociologia.de: Sociology resources in English, German, Spanish and Portuguese.
  • Sociologist At Large: Explore the world of sociology, discuss issues, and other interesting discoveries.
  • Sociology Central: Sociology web site offering free resources for Sociology teachers and students.
  • Sociology Internet Resources: Comprehensive index of resources for culture, race and ethnicity, criminology, women's studies, family, theory and methodology.
  • Sociology Online: A site for students of sociology, criminology and social theory. The site has slideshows, quizzes and documents as well as a Socio-News page.
  • Sociology Online: The site for all serious students of sociology. It includes essays, articles, quizzes and presentations. It also includes a regularly updated Socio-News section.
  • Sociology Subject Index and Sociology Topical Index and Dictionary: Sociology Subject Index and Sociology Topical Index and Dictionary with leads to abstracts, bibliography, syllabus and journals, including sociology departments around the world.
  • Sociopranos: Social Science Discussion Forum.
  • Sociopranos: Multiple fora for the discussion of sociology topics.
  • The Centre for Applied Social Surveys: CASS has been set up by three major universities in the UK, and aims to strengthen skills in survey design and analysis in the social science research community.
  • The Internet Sociologist: A free "teach yourself" tutorial on Internet information skills for sociologists, written by Stuart Macwilliam, Library and Information Services, University of Exeter. It is one of a set tutorials within the RDN Virtual Training Suite, created by subject-specialists from universities and professional organisations across the UK.
  • The Question Bank: The Centre for Applied Social Surveys [CASS] Question Bank (Qb) is a store of complete UK social survey questions, questionnaires and response forms.
  • The SocioLog: Julian Dierkes' comprehensive guide to sociology on-line
  • The SocioWeb: An independent guide to sociological resources on the Internet.
  • Theory.org.uk: Media studies and gender studies with content on queer theory, gender, Foucault, Judith Butler, media influences, cyber culture, role models, and critical theory. Produced by Dr David Gauntlett, University of Leeds, UK.
  • Top20Sociology.com - Online Directory for Sociology Education.: Includes theory, rural, family, crimonology, religion, urban studies, sociologists, history, and demography.
  • Wadsworth's Virtual Society: Site dedicated to the academic world of sociology and social science in general. Site accompanies the book The Practice of Social Research.
  • Web Resources - Sociology: Annotated links to sociology information on the web. Gathered by the University of Kentucky.
  • WWW Virtual Library: Evaluation: Information gateway for the field of Social Policy.
  • WWW Virtual Library: Sociology: Global links to sociology resources.
  • Yale Library Resources: Sociology: A great multi - purpose site for sociology.


     from Wikipedia

    Sociology

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    Sociology

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    'Sociology' (from Latin: socius, "companion"; and the suffix -ology, "the study of", from Greek λόγος, lógos, "knowledge" [1]) is the systematic and scientific study of society, including patterns of social relationships, social action, and culture[2]. Areas studied in sociology can range from the analysis of brief contacts between anonymous individuals on the street to the study of global social processes. Numerous fields within the discipline concentrate on how and why people are organized in society, either as individuals or as members of associations, groups, and institutions. As an academic discipline, sociology is most often considered as a branch of social science.

    Sociological research provides educators, planners, lawmakers, administrators, developers, business leaders, and people interested in resolving social problems and formulating public policy with rationales for the actions that they take.

    History

    Main article: History of sociology

    Sociology, in studying society, including economic, political and cultural systems, has origins in the common stock of human knowledge and philosophy. Social analysis has been carried out by scholars and philosophers at least as early as the time of Plato.

    There is evidence of early Greek (e.g. Xenophanes[3], Xenophon[4] , Polybios[5]) and Muslim sociological contributions, especially by Ibn Khaldun,[6] whose Muqaddimah is viewed as the earliest work dedicated to sociology as a social science.[7][8] Several other forerunners of sociology, from Giambattista Vico up to Karl Marx, are nowadays considered classical sociologists.

    Sociology later emerged as a scientific discipline in the early 19th century as an academic response to the challenges of modernity and modernization, such as industrialization and urbanization. Sociologists hope not only to understand what holds social groups together, but also to develop responses to social disintegration and exploitation.

    The word sociology was coined by French thinker Auguste Comte [9] in 1838 (from the Latin: socius, "companion"; and the suffix -ology, "the study of" [1]). Comte hoped to unify all studies of humankind - including history, psychology and economics. His own sociological scheme was typical of the 19th century; he believed all human life had passed through the same distinct historical stages (theology, metaphysics, positive science) and that, if one could grasp this progress, one could prescribe the remedies for social ills. Sociology was to be the 'queen of positive sciences'.[10] Thus, Comte has come to be viewed as the "Father of Sociology".[10]

    "Classical" theorists of sociology from the late 19th and early 20th centuries include Ferdinand Tönnies, Émile Durkheim, Vilfredo Pareto, Ludwig Gumplowicz, Georg Simmel, Karl Marx, and Max Weber. Like Comte, these figures did not consider themselves only "sociologists". Their works addressed religion, education, economics, law, psychology, ethics, philosophy, and theology, and their theories have been applied in a variety of academic disciplines. Their influence on sociology was foundational.

    Institutionalizing sociology

    The discipline was taught by its own name for the first time at the University of Kansas, Lawrence in 1890 by Frank Blackmar, under the course title Elements of Sociology. It remains the oldest continuing sociology course in America. The Department of History and Sociology at the University of Kansas was established in 1891 [11] [12], and the first full-fledged independent university department of sociology was established in 1892 at the University of Chicago by Albion W. Small, who in 1895 founded the American Journal of Sociology [13]

    The first European department of sociology was founded in 1895 at the University of Bordeaux by Émile Durkheim, founder of L'Année Sociologique (1896). The first sociology department to be established in the United Kingdom was at the London School of Economics and Political Science (home of the British Journal of Sociology) [14] in 1904. In 1919 a sociology department was established in Germany at the Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich by Max Weber, and in 1920 in Poland by Florian Znaniecki.

    International cooperation in sociology began in 1893 when René Worms founded the Institut International de Sociologie, which was later eclipsed by the much larger International Sociological Association (ISA), founded in 1949. [15] In 1905, the American Sociological Association, the world's largest association of professional sociologists, was founded, and in 1909 the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Soziologie (German Society for Sociology) was founded by Ferdinand Tönnies and Max Weber, among others.

    Positivism and anti-positivism

    Articles: Positivism, Sociological positivism, and Antipositivism.

    Early theorists' approach to sociology, led by Comte, was to treat it in much the same manner as natural science, applying the same methods and methodology used in the natural sciences to study social phenomena. The emphasis on empiricism and the scientific method sought to provide an incontestable foundation for any sociological claims or findings, and to distinguish sociology from less empirical fields such as philosophy. This methodological approach, called positivism assumes that the only authentic knowledge is scientific knowledge, and that such knowledge can only come from positive affirmation of theories through strict scientific method.

    One push away from positivism was philosophical and political, such as in the dialectical materialism based on Marx's theories. A second push away from scientific positivism was cultural, even becoming sociological. As early as the 19th century, positivist and naturalist approaches to studying social life were questioned by scientists like Wilhelm Dilthey and Heinrich Rickert, who argued that the natural world differs from the social world because of unique aspects of human society such as meanings, symbols, rules, norms, and values. These elements of society inform human cultures. This view was further developed by Max Weber, who introduced antipositivism (humanistic sociology). According to this view, which is closely related to antinaturalism, sociological research must concentrate on humans' cultural values (see also: French Pragmatism).

    Twentieth century developments

    In the early 20th century, sociology expanded in the United States, including developments in both macrosociology interested in evolution of societies and microsociology. Based on the pragmatic social psychology of George Herbert Mead, Herbert Blumer and other later Chicago school inspired sociologists developed symbolic interactionism.

    In Europe, in the Interwar period, sociology generally was both attacked by increasingly totalitarian governments and rejected by conservative universities. At the same time, originally in Austria and later in the U.S., Alfred Schütz developed social phenomenology (which would later inform social constructionism). Also, members of the Frankfurt school (some of whom moved to the U.S. to escape Nazi persecution) developed critical theory, integrating critical, idealistic and historical materialistic elements of the dialectical philosophies of Hegel and Marx with the insights of Freud, Max Weber (in theory, if not always in name) and others. In the 1930s in the U.S., Talcott Parsons developed structural-functional theory which integrated the study of social order and "objective" aspects of macro and micro structural factors.

    Since World War II, sociology has been revived in Europe, although during the Stalin and Mao eras it was suppressed in the communist countries. In the mid-20th century, there was a general (but not universal) trend for American sociology to be more scientific in nature, due partly to the prominent influence at that time of structural functionalism. Sociologists developed new types of quantitative research and qualitative research methods. In the second half of the 20th century, sociological research has been increasingly employed as a tool by governments and businesses. Parallel with the rise of various social movements in the 1960s, theories emphasizing social struggle, including conflict theory (which sought to counter structural functionalism) and neomarxist theories, began to receive more attention.

    In the late 20th century, some sociologists embraced postmodern and poststructuralist philosophies. Increasingly, many sociologists have used qualitative and ethnographic methods and become critical of the positivism in some social scientific approaches.[citation needed] Much like cultural studies, some contemporary sociological studies have been influenced by the cultural changes of the 1960s, 20th century Continental philosophy, literary studies, and interpretivism. Others have maintained more objective empirical perspectives, such as by articulating neofunctionalism, social psychology, and rational choice theory. Others began to debate the nature of globalization and the changing nature of social institutions. These developments have led some to reconceptualize basic sociological categories and theories. For instance, inspired by the thought of Michel Foucault, power may be studied as dispersed throughout society in a wide variety of disciplinary cultural practices. In political sociology, the power of the nation state may be seen as transforming due to the globalization of trade (and cultural exchanges) and the expanding influence of international organizations (Nash 2000:1-4).

    However, the positivist tradition is still alive and influential in sociology. In the U.S., the most commonly cited journals, including the American Journal of Sociology and American Sociological Review, primarily publish research in the postivist tradition. There is also a minor revival for a more independent, empirical sociology in the spirit of C Wright Mills, and his studies of the Power Elite in the US.[citation needed]Social network analysis is an example of a new paradigm in this tradition which can go beyond the traditional micro vs. macro or agency vs. structure debates. The influence of social network analysis is pervasive in many sociological subfields such as economic sociology (see the work of Harrison White or Mark Granovetter for example), organizational behavior, historical sociology, political sociology, or the sociology of education.

    Throughout the development of sociology, controversies have raged about how to emphasize or integrate concerns with subjectivity, objectivity, intersubjectivity and practicality in theory and research. The extent to which sociology may be characterized as a 'science' has remained an area of considerable debate, which has addressed basic